Bedouin Attacks on the Damascus Hajj Caravan and the Ottoman State's Countermeasures (1700–1702)

Authors : Ersin Kırca

Pages : 898-925

Doi:10.14395/hid.1758685

View : 126 | Download : 268

Publication Date : 2025-12-30

Article Type : Research Paper

Abstract :This article investigates a pivotal yet often neglected episode in the Ottoman Empire’s pilgrimage administration: the Bedouin attacks on the Damascus hajj caravan in 1700 and 1701, and the state’s institutional response in 1702. These events illustrate how the Ottoman central authority sought to preserve its religious and political legitimacy by ensuring the security of the hajj, one of Islam’s most sacred rituals. Holding the title of Ḥādimü’l-Ḥaremeyn (Servant of the Two Holy Sanctuaries), Ottoman sultans regarded the protection and regulation of the hajj as both a divine duty and an imperial necessity. By the sixteenth century, two major pilgrimage routes were formalized: one through Cairo and the other through Damascus. These caravans were led by an amir al-hajj (commander of the pilgrimage) and protected by imperial troops. However, the long and vulnerable desert passage between Damascus and Medina remained a constant threat due to the activities of semi-nomadic Bedouin tribes, known in Ottoman sources as eşkıyâ-yı Urban (Urban bandits). These tribes traditionally received payments—known as the Urban surresi—in exchange for safe passage and logistical support. Any disruption in these arrangements, whether due to delayed payments or political conflicts, often led to violence. This occurred in 1700, when the Anazeh and Beni Sahr tribes attacked the Damascus caravan after being denied their expected surre and allegedly mistreated by the Sharif of Mecca. Hundreds of pilgrims were killed. The following year, a second attack by other Bedouin groups proved even more catastrophic; reports submitted to the Sultan suggested that as many as 30,000 pilgrims perished. These twin calamities deeply alarmed the imperial government, undermining both its capacity to protect Muslim pilgrims and its image as guardian of Islam’s holiest sites. The failures of Mehmed Pasha and Hasan Pasha—successive amirs of the hajj—were harshly criticized. Hasan Pasha, remembered as Hacıkırdıran (the one who caused the death of pilgrims), was dismissed and exiled. In response, the Ottoman state implemented a comprehensive institutional overhaul in 1702. Arslan Mehmed Pasha, an experienced provincial governor, was appointed both as governor of Damascus and amir al-hajj a dual mandate aimed at unifying command and improving coordination. Troop numbers were significantly increased, including the deployment of more provincial soldiers and local militias. Logistical improvements were introduced: additional camels, food, and water supplies were arranged, and detailed protocols on military discipline were issued. A key administrative reform involved transferring the authority to distribute Urban surre from the Sharif of Mecca to the amir al-hajj aiming to eliminate miscommunication and tribal resentment over missed payments. Furthermore, an embargo was imposed on hostile tribes such as the Aneze and Beni Sahr, prohibiting trade in grain and essential goods, while limited military retaliation was authorized to demonstrate imperial resolve. Drawing on a wide range of primary sources—imperial registers (mühimme defterleri), official correspondence in münşeat mecmuaları, chronicles such as the Nusretnâme, and eyewitness accounts—this study reconstruct the political and military context of the 1700–1702 hajj crises. It argues that the 1702 reforms represent not merely a military reaction but also a deliberate strategy to reclaim imperial authority. Ultimately, this episode reveals how the Ottoman Empire adapted its provincial governance structures in times of crisis. Though attacks on pilgrims persisted in later years, the measures implemented in 1702 became a model for subsequent hajj security policies. This case highlights the complex entanglement of pilgrimage, tribal diplomacy, and imperial sovereignty in the early modern Islamic world.
Keywords : Osmanlı Tarihi, Hac, Şam Hac Kafilesi, Bedevi Arap Kabileleri, Urban, Surre

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